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Subcellular localizations of ROS In recent years, remarkable advancements have been made in understanding the uneven distribution and variable roles of ROS in different organelles, including mitochondria [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22], the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) [23,24,25,26,27], the Golgi apparatus (GA) [28,29,30], the peroxisome [31,32,33,34,35,36], and the nucleus [37,38,39,40,41,42,43] (Fig

We systematically examine key approaches, such as targeting neuroinflammatory cascades, modulating neurotrophic factors, and mitigating glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity

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Telomeres are protective caps on chromosomes that shorten with each cell division

Low ROS levels activate cell survival signaling pathways, such as the unfolded protein response and Nrf2 pathways, whereas high ROS levels activate cell death signaling pathways, such as apoptosis and necroptosis pathways 43